OVP 13-4 Full Final

Optometry & Visual Performance 270 Volume 13 | Issue 4 | December 2025 Plos One 2017;12(8):e0182439. 13. Domkin D, Forsman M, Richter HO. Effect of ciliary-muscle contraction force on trapezius muscle activity during computer mouse work. Eur J Appl Physiol 2019;119(2):38997. 14. Richter HO. Eye-neck/scapular area interactions during strenuous near work. Biologically plausible pathways with relevance for work related musculoskeletal disorders of the neck and upper extremity. Z Arbwiss 2008;62(3):190-9. 15. Han Y, Lennerstrand G. Effect of neck muscle proprioceptive activation on the dynamics of monocularly driven horizontal vergence movements. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 1998;76(3):283-8. 16. PRIME. 5 questions you should ask your optometrist at your next visit. 2019 [updated 15 August 2019]. Available from: https://primengagement.com/5-questions-you-should-askyour-optometrist-at-your-next-visit/. Last Accessed August 31, 2025. 17. Hruska R, Wise H. Postural-visual integration. Presentation at: Postural-visual integration; 3–4 November 2018; Lincoln, Nebraska. 18. Duane A. Studies in monocular and binocular accommodation, with their clinical application. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc Annu Meet 1922;20:132-57. 19. Mallen EA, Gilmartin B, Wolffsohn JS, Tsujimura S-I. Clinical evaluation of the Shin-Nippon SRW-5000 autorefractor in adults: An update. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2015;35(6):622-7. 20. Win-Hall DM, Houser J, Glasser A. Static and dynamic accommodation measured using the WAM-5500 autorefractor. Optom Vis Sci 2010;87(11):873-82. 21. Shaghayeghfard B, Ahmadi A, Maroufi N, Sarrafzadeh J. Evaluation of forward head posture in sitting and standing positions. Eur Spine J 2016;25(11):3577-82. 22. Akodu AK, Ashraf L, Jackson K, Hampton L. Craniovertebral angle. circa 2023. Available from: https://www.physio-pedia. com/Craniovertebral_angle. Last Accessed August 31, 2025. 23. Lister LJ, Suheimat M, Verkicharla PK, Mallen EAH, Atchison DA. Influence of gravity on ocular lens position. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2016;57(4):1885-91. 24. Bailey IL, Lovie JE. New design principles for visual acuity letter charts. Am J Optom Physiol Opt 1976;53(11):740-5. 25. Otero C, Aldaba M, Pujol J. Clinical evaluation of an automated subjective refraction method implemented in a computercontrolled motorized phoropter. J Optom 2019;12(2):74-83. 26. Tan RKT, O’Leary DJ. Steady-state accommodation response to different Snellen letter sizes. Am J Optom Physiol Opt 1985;62(11):751-4. 27. Charman WN, Heron G. Microfluctuations in accommodation: an update on their characteristics and possible role. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2015;35(5):476-99. 28. Siegel S, Castellan NJ Jr. Nonparametric statistics for the behavioral sciences. Second ed. New York: McGraw–Hill; 1988. 29. Brown MB, Forsythe AB. Robust tests for the equality of variances. J Am Stat Assoc 1974;69(346):364-7. 30. Sokal RR, Rohlf FJ. Biometry. second ed. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman; 1981. 31. Gilmartin B, Bullimore MA, Rosenfield M, Winn B, Owens H. Pharmacological effects on accommodative adaptation. Optom Vis Sci 1992;69(4):276-82. 32. Idres AAM, Shehata S, Ramzy Y, Hussein M. Relationship between refractive visual errors and cervical spine angles and range of motion. Med J Cairo Univ 2019;87(2):1165-71. 33. Valentino B, Fabozzo A. Interaction between the muscles of the neck and the extraocular muscles of the myopic eye. An electromyographic study. Surg Radiol Anat 1993;15(4):321-3. 34. Lau HMC, Chiu TTW, Lam T-H. Clinical measurement of craniovertebral angle by electronic head posture instrument: a test of reliability and validity. Man Ther 2009;14(4):363-8. 35. Kim E-K, Kim JS. Correlation between rounded shoulder posture, neck disability indices, and degree of forward head posture. J Phys Ther Sci 2016;28(10):2929-32. 36. Miller RJ, Takahama M. Arousal-related changes in dark focus accommodation and dark vergence. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1988;29(7):1168-78. 37. Lundqvist L-O, Zetterlund C, Richter HO. Reliability and validity of the visual, musculoskeletal, and balance complaints questionnaire. Optom Vis Sci 2016;93(9):1147-57. 38. Heiden M, Zetterberg C, Lindberg P, Nylén P, Hemphälä H. Validity of a computer-based risk assessment method for visual ergonomics. Int J Ind Ergon 2019;72:180-7. Correspondence regarding this article should be emailed to Lawrence R. Stark, PhD at lstark@ketchum.edu. All statements are the authors' personal opinions and may not reflect the opinions of the representative organization, OEPF, Optometry & Visual Performance, or any institution or organization with which the authors may be affiliated. Permission to use reprints of this article must be obtained from the editor. Copyright 2025 Optometric Extension Program Foundation. Online access is available at www.oepf.org and www.ovpjournal.org. Rane M, Stark LR. Effect of forward neck posture on ocular accommodation. Optom Vis Perf 2025;13(4):261-70.

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